UPSC 2015 Paper V - Western Moral Thinkers

Socrates was accused of corrupting the youth and of impiety towards gods. At the end of the trial, he was condemned to death. Plato, a great philosopher and disciple of Socrates, gives a poignant account of the trial in 'The Apology'. Its a great Platonic dialogue.

Socrates is the first moral thinker in western philosophical tradition. He belonged to the Athenian republic in ancient Greece. Around this period, there were wars between persians and greeks. Athens won over persians (Spartas). The political atmosphere became poisoned in the wake of war, plague, defeat and amidst wide spread suspicions about conspiracies and treacheries against the government. It was this time that Socrates fell foul of the political rulers in athens. He was accused of corrupting the youth and of impiety towards gods. At the end of the trial, Socrates was condemned to death.

Plato, a great philosopher, was a student of Socrates for eight years. Plato was not only a great philosopher, but also a great literary genius. Plato's views on virtue are derived from Socrates. He places them within the framework of this theory of Forms or Ideas. As a result, he injects an air of mysticism into them. Plato conceives an individual's moral life as dependent on the ethical constitution of the State. Hence, any discussion of Platonic virtue cannot be separated from political ethics. Thus, he was a political thinker and a moralist.

Socrates is the first moral thinker in western philosophical tradition. He belonged to the athenian republic in ancient Greece. He was a man of modest means. In his younger days, he served in the army and acquitted himself with courage and honour. He then settled down in Athens. He spent his time in disputation and taught philosophy to the young without charging fees. He carried on his discussion in market places and other public forums. He was high minded and was indifferent to worldly success. He was a saintly character with a beautiful soul.

Plato's theory of Virtue follows the Socratic doctrine. He identifies virtue with knowledge. From this, it follows that virtue is teachable and that men can learn morality just as they can learn any other subject. Plato makes a fourfold division of morals and associates them with the different parts of the soul. The four virtues are wisdom or prudence, valour, temperance and justice.

Zeno was the founder of the Stoic School. Stoicism rejected the idealism of Plato. According to Stoicism, knowledge consists of the sense impressions which get imprinted in the mind. Mental activity is solely limited to these materials received from senses. Stoics combined their faith in knowledge as derived from senses with materialism. They denied the existence of non-material entities. Stoics place knowledge in (to use a modern phrase) what sense data reveal or in material form. They regard human soul and god as material.

Aristotle is a systematic academic philosopher. He wrote the treatise 'Nicomachean Ethics'. It is the name normally given to Aristotle's best known work on ethics. The work which plays a pre-eminent role in defining Aristotelian ethics consists of ten books, originally separate scrolls, and is understood to be based on notes from his lectures at the Lyceum, which were either edited by or dedicated to Aristotle's son, Nicomachus. Aristotle discusses the summum bonum which is the final end towards which human activity is directed. Every human act has an end or aim. But, many ends are means to other ends or ways of achieving the other ends. Finally, we reach an end which is ultimate and does not serve as means to any other end. This is Summum bonum.

Jeremy Bentham gave the first systematic account of Utilitarianism in introduction to the principles of morals and legislation. 'Utilitarianism' proposes that human actions should aim at promoting the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people. Utilitarianism answers that the moral agent has to choose that one which maximises the pleasure and minimises the pain. The right action for an individual to perform on any occasion is that which will produce the greatest pleasure and the least pain to those affected by it. Utilitarianism as an ethical rule of conduct applies to individual moral agents, institutions and governments.

De Natura Deorum (On the Nature of the Gods) is a philosophical dialogue by Roman orator Cicero written in 45 BC. It is laid out in three books, each of which discusses the theology of different roman and greek philosophers. The dialogue uses a discussion of stoic, epicurean and skeptical theories to examine the fundamental questions of theology.
Epicureanism regards the pursuit of happiness as the chief aim of life. Epicurus, however, identifies the popular religion as the chief obstacle to human happiness. For it haunts the human mind with fears of god, death, retribution and hell. Epicurus borrows his philosophy from Democritus. Democritus also formulated the ancient form of atomic theory. Epicurus applies this theory to the human soul. He regards the human soul as everything else in the universe, to be composed of atoms. The atoms in the soul are scattered at death with no possibility of future life.

Socrates holds the view that no one knowingly does what is bad. This view is known as 'Moral Intellectualism'. It means that only knowledge is needed to make all men virtuous. Socrates thinks that men desire what is virtuous for them. If they desire bad things or act wrongly, it is due to their ignorance.

Utilitarianism does not imply or endorse an egotistical attitude to life. It does not give any special status to the pleasure or happiness of the individual whose actions it is to guide. Egoism or self centeredness is an attitude by which an individual gives a privileged status to his own welfare. As opposed to this, Utilitarians treat everyone's welfare as equal. Hence, Utilitarianism is not an egotistical doctrine.

Epicureanism elaborated the various aspects of happiness. Happiness does not mean momentary physical or mental pleasure. Happiness is the joy which lasts for the whole life. Men should avoid momentary pleasures which may often lead to greater pains later. They should not be slaves to particular pleasures and desires. They have to master their passions. They need to abandon present pleasures which lead to future pain and be ready to undergo present pain for the sake of future joy. Epicureanism distinguishes between physical and mental pleasures. Mental pleasures are superior to physical pleasures. The body feels physical pleasure only during the duration of it. Physical pleasures are ephemeral. Mental pleasures arise from remembrance. Recollection of past joy is a present delight and anticipation of future pain is a present anxiety. Therefore, to be happy, one has to cultivate mental serenity.

For Aristotle, justice is a virtue of the state and not of the individual. He mentions two types of justice: distributive and corrective. His concept of distributive justice should not be understood in the modern egalitarian sense. Distributive justice in its modern sense seeks to reduce extreme inequalities in wealth and income.

Socrates holds that no one knowingly does what is bad. Socratic view that knowledge of morals is sufficient to make a man virtuous. A man may reason correctly and discover the correct moral course. However, he may be overwhelmed by his emotions and take the unethical moral course. The saying, "The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak" sums up this situation.

Epicurean doctrine advocates that men should pursue happiness. Epicureans adopted a pure and noble conception of happiness. A good part of Epicureanism consists of elaborating or clarifying the various aspects of happiness. Happiness does not mean momentary physical or mental pleasure. Happiness is the joy which lasts for the whole life. Men should avoid momentary pleasures which may often lead to greater pains later. They should not be slaves to particular pleasures and desires. They have to master their passions. They need to abandon present pleasures which lead to future pain and be ready to undergo present pain for the sake of future joy.