The Vedic and Later Vedic Period

The third mandala contains the Gayatri Mantra (addressed to sun).

The Vedic Civilization flourished along the river Saraswati, in a region that now consists of the modern Indian states of Haryana and Punjab.

The Vedic period in India prevailed approximately from 1500 BC to 500 BC.

The early Vedic religion has been designated by the name of henotheism or kathenotheism (a belief in single gods, each standing out as the highest).

Yajur Veda deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices.

Each veda has several Brahmanas attached to it. For example:
1. Rigveda: Kaushetki and Aitreya
2. Yajurveda: Taitriya and Shatpatha
3. Samveda: Panchvish and Jemineya

The most important contribution of the later Vedic period was the composition of Vedangas.
These Vedangas were regarded as less authoritative than Sruti and are styled Smriti. They were six in number:

1. Siksha (phonetics)   2. Kalpa (ritual)    3. Vyakaran (grammar)
2. Nirukta (etymology)   5. Chhand (metrics)   6. Jyotish (astronomy)

Kingship was a normal feature of the society. There are few references to elected kings, otherwise most of the times the office was hereditary. There are references in the Atharva Veda regarding the election of the king by the people.

The kings of several regions, in later Vedic kingdoms, gave themselves various titles. While the kings of middle country were called raja, the eastern kings were titled Samrat, the southern Bhoj, those in the west Svarat, and the rulers of the northern realms were called Virat.

The battle took place on the banks of the Parusni (Ravi).

Rig Vedic people did not possess the art of writing and early literature of Aryans was known to be transmitted orally.

Agriculture was the principal occupation of the villagers in Rig Vedic times.

An important characteristic of Vedic mythology is the predominance of the male element. Thus, Vedic civilisation presents a contrast to the prehistoric culture of Indus Valley, where the mother goddess is coequal with her male partner.

performed Rajasuya and Asvamedha Yajnas to show the extent of their powers. The Rajsuya Yajna was performed at the time of the coronation of the king. It conferred supreme power on him.

Gandhara was the northernmost Janapada during the later Vedic period, located in present-day northwest Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. Its geographical position in the northwest made it the frontier territory bordering the Iranian plateau.