Physiology of Animal and Man

The midbrain, also called the mesencephalon, is the smallest and the most anterior part of the brainstem with a tubular appearance. It is involved in functions such as vision, hearing, movement of the eyes and body motor function.

Neurotrophins are small proteins secreted in the nervous system at extremely low concentration. Low levels of a neurotrophin are needed to keep nerve cells alive. However, in some cases, presence of a neurotrophin can have the opposite effect by initiating cell death. During the development of nervous system, the level of neurotrophins can control the unwanted nerve cells.

An ectopic pregnancy is a pregnancy that occurs outside the womb (uterus). It is a life-threatening condition to the mother. The platelet count remains the same during ectopic pregnancy.

Progesterone is a steroid hormone produced by the ovaries to maintain and preserve pregnancy in the presence of a fertilized egg. Since appetite can be affected by neurotransmitters such as dopamine, norepinephrine, cortisol and serotonin, the hormone progesterone might indirectly control our hunger level.

Corpus callosum is a thick band of nerve fibers that divides the cerebrum into left and right hemispheres. It connects the left and right sides of the brain allowing for communication between both hemispheres. The corpus callosum transfers motor, sensory and cognitive information between the brain hemispheres.

Myelosuppression is a medical condition where the bone marrow activity is decreased, resulting in fewer red blood cells. It is a major side effect of chemotherapy.

Haematocrit is a measure of the percentage of red blood cells to the total blood volume. It is also called packed cell volume or PCV. It is used to evaluate anemia, blood loss, haemolytic anemia and polycythemia.

Iron overload is an excess of iron in the body. Excess iron in vital organs, even in mild cases of iron overload, increases the risk for liver disease like cirrhosis, cancer , heart attack or heart failure, diabetes mellitus etc, but it is not a cause of polycythaemia.

Bowel obstruction is an obstruction of the intestines, preventing the normal transit of the products of digestion. It is common and is usually managed medically using subcutaneous medication given via a syringe driver.

Manganese is a naturally occurring element and an essential nutrient. ECF contains large amounts of sodium, chloride ions and moderate amounts of bicarbonate ions. Potassium, calcium, magnesium and phosphate ions are present in very minute quantities. But manganese is not present in ECF.

Diuretics are useful in the treatment. They act by increasing sodium excretion by the kidney. The commonly used diuretics are loop diuretics, such as furosemide and the thiazide diuretics.

Vitamin K is a fat soluble vitamin, so our body stores it in fat tissue and the liver. It is best known for its role in helping blood clot. Blood clotting factors are needed for blood to clot (coagulation). Prothrombin or factor II is one of the clotting factors made by the liver. Vitamin K is needed to make prothrombin and other clotting factors.

Manganese is a naturally occurring element and an essential nutrient. ECF contains large amounts of sodium, chloride ions and moderate amounts of bicarbonate ions. Potassium, calcium, magnesium and phosphate ions are present in very minute quantities. But, manganese is not present in ECF.

Hemocyanins are respiratory proteins in the form of metalloproteins containing two copper atoms that reversibly bind a single oxygen molecule (O2). Oxygenation causes a colour change between the colourless Cu(I) deoxygenated form and the blue Cu(II) oxygenated form. Unlike the hemoglobin in red blood cells found in vertebrates, hemocyanins are not bound to blood cells but are instead suspended directly in the haemolymph.

Albumin produced only in the liver is the major plasma protein that circulates in the bloodstream. One of the functions of albumin is to maintain intravascular oncotic (colloid osmotic) pressure. To facilitate movement of fluid throughout the body, the average capillary pressure is 15 to 25 mm Hg, greater at the arterial end than at the venous end. Serum albumin carries and delivers important nutrients to cells. It binds toxins to avoid toxic effects, binds excessive proteins to act as a buffer and binds hormones and growth peptides to keep them stable.