Indian Constitutional Amendments & Special Provisions

With a view to making right to free and compulsory education a fundamental right, the Act inserts a new article, namely, Article 21A conferring on all children in the age group of 6 to 14 years the right to free and compulsory education. The Act amends in Part-III, Part -IV and Part-IV(A) of the constitution.

The National Commission for Women was established in 1990 under the National Commission for Women Act, passed by the Indian Parliament. The Commission was set up to review constitutional and legal safeguards for women, recommend remedial measures, and work towards their equal representation. This was part of India's strengthening of institutional mechanisms for women's empowerment.

The Indian Constitution borrowed its amendment procedure from South Africa. The South African Constitution provided for a flexible amendment process requiring special majorities, which India adapted. Ireland contributed fundamental rights provisions, UK influenced parliamentary procedures, and Germany provided directive principles. The amendment process balances flexibility with stability.

The 56th Constitutional Amendment Act (1987) granted full statehood to Goa, which was previously a Union Territory. Mizoram became a state earlier (1986, 53rd Amendment), Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura also gained statehood in 1986. This amendment completed the process of northeastern state reorganization that began in the 1970s.

President's Rule under Article 356 can initially be imposed for 6 months, with the possibility of extension up to 3 years with parliamentary approval every 6 months. During this period, the state legislature is suspended, and Parliament assumes the state's legislative powers. The 6-month initial period balances emergency governance with democratic safeguards.

Article 330 provides for reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha. Article 332 deals with reservation in State Legislative Assemblies, while Article 333 covers nomination of Anglo-Indians. Article 334 originally dealt with duration of reservations (now extended indefinitely). These provisions ensure representation for marginalized communities in the democratic process.

Article 323A of the Indian Constitution provides for the establishment of Administrative Tribunals to adjudicate disputes related to recruitment and service conditions of public servants. These tribunals reduce the burden on regular courts by providing specialized, faster resolution of administrative matters. State Administrative Tribunals can also be established under this article for state-level matters.

The Srikrishna Committee (officially the Committee for Consultations on the Situation in Andhra Pradesh) was formed in 2010 to examine the feasibility of a separate Telangana state. Headed by former Supreme Court Justice B.N. Srikrishna, it consulted various stakeholders and submitted its report in 2011, recommending various options. The committee's work was crucial in the eventual formation of Telangana in 2014.

Constitution of India refers to 'Minorities' to those based on religion.

Constitutional amendments in India follow the procedure laid down in Article 368, requiring special majorities in Parliament and sometimes ratification by states. The President cannot amend the Constitution unilaterally, and referendums are not part of the Indian amendment process. The Prime Minister must follow parliamentary procedure. This ensures amendments are neither too rigid nor too flexible.

Constitution (61st Amendment) Act, 1989: It lowers the voting age from 21 to 18 to give wider representation and involve the present day literate youth, in the mainstream of political life of the nation.

Constitution (76th Amendment) Act, 1994: This amendment places the Tamil Nadu Bill of Reservation within the preview of the Ninth Schedule to the Constitution. The government of Tamil Nadu reserved18% to Scheduled Castes, 1% to Scheduled Tribes and 50% to Other Backward Castes (total 69%) in education institutions and public employments.

Lokpal and Lokayuktas are anti-corruption ombudsman organizations in the Indian states.

Ombudsman institution originated in Sweden (handling citizen grievances), Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration is a UK institution, the Procurator System was part of the Soviet legal framework, and Administrative Courts are a distinctive feature of the French judicial system. Option D correctly matches all four pairs.

The 42nd Constitutional Amendment (1976) is called the 'Mini Constitution' because it made sweeping changes to the Preamble, Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles, and constitutional structure. It added 'Socialist', 'Secular', and 'Integrity' to the Preamble and expanded fundamental duties.